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Imbalance of Ecosystems and its effect on public health and livestock
Imbalance of Ecosystems and its effects on public health and livestock
Dr.Kedar MVSt Karki. (Preventive Veterinary Medicine)
Tripureshwor Central Veterinary Laboratory
The health of human beings, like all living organisms, is dependent on an ecosystem that sustains life. Healthy ecosystems are the condition sine qua non for healthy organisms. However, there is abundant evidence that many systems support life are far from being in good health, an increased burden on human health. In some regions of the world, gains in life expectancy and quality of life made during the twentieth century likely to be reversed in the twenty-first century. The consequences of ecosystem degradation to human health are numerous and include health risks of drinking water, air pollution, climate change, emerging new diseases and resurgence of old diseases due environmental imbalances. Reversing this damage is possible in some cases but not in others. Preventing environmental damage is far the most effective strategy.
DEFINING THE ECOSYSTEM
An ecological system can be defined as a community of plants and animals interacting with each other and their abiotic, or natural environment. Typically, ecosystems are differentiated on the basis of the dominant vegetation, topography, climate, or other criteria. The boreal forest, for example, are characterized by the predominance conifer; grasslands are characterized by the predominance of grasses, the Arctic tundra is partly determined by the harsh climatic zone. In most regions of the world, the human community is an important, indeed essential to the ecosystem. Ecosystems include not only natural areas (eg, forests, lakes, coastal systems) but also human-constructed systems (eg, ecosystems urban, agro-ecosystems, impoundments). Human populations are increasingly concentrated in urban ecosystems, and it is estimated that by the year 2010, 50 percent of the world population will live in urban areas.
A landscape with a mosaic of ecosystems, including cities, rivers, lakes, agricultural systems, and so on. clear boundaries between ecosystems are often difficult to establish. Often regions slide into one another, gradually over a long-term "transitional" area, for example between the boreal forest regions Canadian taiga.
Ecosystem Health
It is important to recognize the difficulties inherent in the definition of "health" whether at the individual level, population, or ecosystem. The concept of health is somewhat of an enigma, being easier to define its absence (illness) and in its presence. Perhaps partly for this reason, ecologists have resisted applying the notion of "health" ecosystems. Yet, ecosystems can become dysfunctional, particularly under chronic stress the man for activity.Example include the release of nutrients from sewage, industrial waste or agricultural runoff into lakes or rivers affects the operation natural ecosystem, and may cause serious troubles. Excessive inputs of nutrients from human activity was one major factors that severely compromised the health of the lower Laurentian Great Lakes (Lakes Erie and Ontario) and regions of the upper Great Lakes (Lake Michigan). Unfortunately, degraded ecosystems are becoming more the rule than the exception.
The study characteristics degraded systems, and comparisons with systems that have not been modified by human activity, it is possible to identify characteristics of healthy ecosystems. Healthy ecosystems can be characterized not only by the absence of signs of pathology, but also signs of health, including measures of vigor (productivity), organization, and resilience.
Vigor can be assessed terms of metabolism (activity and productivity) of the system. Ecosystems are very different in their natural range of productivity. Estuaries are much more productive than open oceans, and marshes have higher productivity than deserts. Health is not valued applying a standard to all systems. Organization can be assessed by the structure of the biotic community that forms an ecosystem and the nature of interactions between species (plants and animals). Invariably, healthy ecosystems have a greater diversity of living systems Environmentally compromised. Resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to maintain its structure and functions in response to natural disturbances. The systems with a history of chronic stress are less likely to recover from natural disturbances such as drought than those systems that have been relatively less stressed.
Healthy ecosystems can also be characterized in the economic, social and health conditions of man. Healthy ecosystems support a certain level of economic activity. This does not mean that the ecosystem is necessarily self-sufficient, but it supports economic productivity to enable the human community to meet the reasonable needs. Inevitably, the degradation encroaches on the ecosystem sustainability of the human economy that is associated with it, even though short-term this may not be Clearly, as natural capital (eg, soils, renewable resources) may be overexploited and temporarily enhance economic efficiency. Similarly, with respect to welfare, healthy ecosystems provide a basis for promoting integration and community. Historically For example, native Hawaiian groups managed their ecosystem through a well-developed social cohesion that provided a degree strong cooperation in fisheries and farming.
Another reflection of ecosystem health is directly in the field of health public. In spring 2000, a deadly strain of the bacteria E-coli (0157: H7) entered the public water supply in Walkerton, Ontario, Canada causing seven deaths and making thousands sick. This small town with a population of five thousand, is in a farming community. management of manure from the operation inadequate cattle was the likely source of this tragedy.
HOW healthy ecosystems become pathological
Stress from human activity is a major factor in transforming healthy ecosystems to ecosystems patients. Chronic stress from human activity is distinguished from disturbances Natural. Natural disturbances (fires, floods, periodic insect infestations) are part of the dynamics of most ecosystems. These processes contribute to "reset" ecosystems by recycling nutrients and clearing space for recolonization by biota that may be better adapted to changing environments. Thus, natural disturbances help maintain healthy ecosystems. In contrast, the chronic and acute stress on ecosystems resulting from human activity (eg, construction of large dams, the release of nutrients and toxic substances in air, water and earth) usually results in an ecological long-term dysfunction.
Five main sources of human origin (Anthropogenic) points have been identified by DJ and am a friend Report (1979): physical restructuring, overharvesting, waste residues, the introduction of alien species and global change.
Physical restructuring. Activities such as drainage of wetlands, the removal benches in lakes, dams, and the fragment of roads and change the landscape and damage critical habitat. These activities are also disrupt the nutrient cycle, and cause loss of biodiversity.
Overexploitation. Overexploitation is commonplace when it comes to harvesting of wildlife, fisheries and forests. Over long periods of time, stocks of preferred species are reduced. For example, the giant sequoias once thrived along the California coast is no longer in patches because of overharvesting. When dominant species such as Giant Sequoias (probably the largest in the world of trees and a specimen was recorded at 110 meters high with a circumference of 13.4 meters) are lost, the whole ecosystem changes. Over-exploitation often results in reduced biodiversity of endemic species, while facilitating the invasion of opportunistic species.
Waste residues. Discharges from municipal, industrial and agricultural sources in the air, water and land have severely compromised many of Earth's ecosystems. The effects are particularly apparent in aquatic ecosystems. Some lakes that have no natural buffering capacity, acid precipitation has eliminated most of the fish and other organisms. Although the visual effect is beneficial (water clarity goes up) the impact on ecosystem health is devastating. Systems that contain a variety organisms and have been very productive (biologically) become devoid of most life forms except a few acid-tolerant bacteria and benthic organisms.
Introduction of exotic species. The spread of alien species has become a problem in almost all ecosystems world. Transport of species in their native habitat entirely new ecosystems can have devastating effects, such as new environments are often without natural balance of new species. In the Great Lakes Basin, the accidental introduction of two small pelagic fish, the alewife, smelt, combined with the simultaneous exploitation of natural predators such as lake trout, led to a significant decrease in native fish species. Introduction sea lamprey, an eel-like fish predator that attacks larger fish in Lake Erie and the upper Great Lakes further destabilized the native fish community. The sea lamprey contributed to the disappearance of the benthic fish community in deep water by attacking a lake trout, whitefish and burbot. This contributed to a change in fish from the Community which was dominated by large benthic to one dominated by small pelagics (fish found in the upper layers of the profile of the lake). This shift from groundfish (benthic) for surface dwelling fish (pelagic) was partially reversed by another accidental introduction of exotic zebra mussels. As the zebra mussel is a very effective filter both phtyoplankton and zooplankton, its presence has reduced the food available in the surface waters for pelagic fish. However, while the benthic fish community has regained its dominant position, the preferred species of groundfish have not recovered because of the degree of initial degradation. Overall, the increasing dominance by exotic species not only altered the ecology, but also a substantial reduction in the value of commercial fishing.
Global Change. Rapid climate change (or warming climate) is a new global potential stress on the entire ecosystem of the Earth. In changing times, there are of course important climate fluctuations. However, for the most part, these fluctuations have occurred gradually over long periods of time. Rapid climate change is quite another matter. By changing the mean and extreme precipitation, temperature, and storms, and by destabilizing the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) which controls weather patterns over much of the South Pacific region, many ecosystem processes can become significantly altered. excessive length of drought or unusually heavy rains and floods exceed the tolerance for many species, thus changing the composition biotic. Flooding and unusually high winds contribute to soil erosion, and at the same time add to nutrient load in rivers and coastal waters.
These anthropogenic undermined the functioning of ecosystems in most regions of the world, resulting ecosystem distress syndrome (EDS). EDS is characterized by a set of signs, including abnormalities in nutrient cycling, productivity, diversity and species richness, biotic structure, soil fertility prevalence of the disease, and so on. The consequences of these changes for human health are not negligible. Impoverished biotic communities are natural harbors for pathogens that affect humans and other species.
HEALTH AND HUMAN ecosystem health
An important aspect of ecosystem degradation is the increased risk for human health. Traditionally, the concern has been to contaminants, industrial chemicals that may have particular adverse effects on human development, neurological functions, reproductive functions, which seem to be pathogenic in a variety of cancers. In addition to these environmental problems major (where remedies are often technological, including engineering solutions to reduce releases of contaminants), there are many other risks to human health arising from ecological imbalance.
Ecosystem distress syndrome results in loss of ecosystem services evaluated, including flood control, water quality, air quality, fish and diversity of wildlife and recreation. One major signs of EDS is the increased incidence of disease, both in humans and other species. population health of man must therefore be considered in an ecological context as an expression of integrity and health of the life supporting capacity of the environment.
Imbalances Ecological caused by global climate change and other causes are responsible for increased risks of human health.
Climate change and Vector Borne Diseases. The global burden of infectious diseases is of the order of several hundred million cases per year. Many diseases vector are sensitive to climate. Malaria, dengue, hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, and various forms of viral encephalitis are all in this category. All these diseases are the result of viruses transmitted by arthropods (arboviruses) are transmitted to humans following the bite of bloodsucking arthropods.
global climate change, particularly as it impacts both temperatures and precipitation is strongly correlated with the prevalence vector-borne diseases. For example, viruses transmitted by mosquitoes, ticks and other bloodsucking arthropods generally have increased rates transmission with higher temperatures. The St. Louis encephalitis (SLE) is an example. The Culex tarsalis mosquito carrying the virus. The percentage of bites that the results of the transmission of SLE is dependent on temperature, with greater transmission at high temperatures.
The temperature dependence of disease Vector Borne is also well illustrated by malaria. Malaria is endemic in tropical regions with a high prevalence in Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and parts of South and Central America and Mexico. About 2.4 billion people live in areas of risk, with some 350 million new infections each year, causing approximately 2 million deaths, mostly among young children. Untreated malaria can become one Symptoms lifelong affliction generally include fever, headache, and malaise.
The climate sensitivity of malaria arises because the nature of the interactions of pests, vectors and hosts, all of which impact the ultimate transmission rate humans. The gestation period required for the parasite to become fully developed in the host against mosquitoes (a process called sporogony) is from eight to thirty-five days. When temperatures are in the range of 20 ° C to 27 ° C, the gestation period is reduced. Rainfall and humidity also have an influence. Drought and heavy rains tend to reduce the population of mosquitoes that serve as vectors of malaria. In dry regions of the tropics, low rainfall and humidity limit mosquito survival. Severe flooding can cause scouring of rivers and destruction of livestock habitats for mosquito vectors, while intermediate rainfall enhances vector production.
Ecological imbalances. Cholera is a serious and potentially fatal disease that is caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. Although not nearly as widespread as malaria, cases are still many. In 1993, there were 296,206 new cases of cholera reported in South America, 9280 cases were reported in Mexico, 62,964 cases in Africa, and 64,599 in Asia. Most of the outbreaks in Asia, Africa and South America have roots in the coastal regions. The symptoms of cholera are explosive diarrhea aqueous, vomiting and abdominal pain. The most recent pandemic of cholera in regions because of more than at any time prior to the twentieth century. The disease remains endemic in India, Bangladesh and Africa. Vibrio cholerae has also been found in the United States in the region of the Gulf Coast of Texas Louisiana and Florida, the Chesapeake Bay area and California coast.
The increasing prevalence of V. cholerae has been strongly linked to degradation of coastal marine environments. Rich in nutrients, warmer coastal waters, resulting from a combination of climate change and use fertilizer, offers an ideal environment for reproduction and dissemination of V. cholerae. Recent outbreaks of cholera in Bangladesh, for example, are closely correlated with higher temperatures of the sea surface V. cholerae attach to the surface of the freshwater and marine copepods (crustaceans), as well as to roots and exposed surfaces of macrophytes (aquatic plants), such as water hyacinth, the most abundant aquatic plant in Bangladesh. Enrichment nutrients and warmer temperatures lead to algal blooms and an abundance of macrophytes. The algae provide abundant food for copepods, and copepods growing and macrophyte populations provide V. cholerae with habitat. After the dispersal of V. cholerae estuaries and freshwater organisms allows contact with humans who use these waters for drinking and bathing. Global distribution of marine pathogens such as V. cholerae is further facilitated by ballast water discharged by ships. Ballast water contains a virtual cocktail of pathogens, including V. cholerae.
Two other examples of how ecological imbalances raise concerns for human health expenses prevalence Increased Lyme disease and hantavirus pulmonary disease. Lyme disease, sonamed because he was positively identified in Lyme, Connecticut, is a disabling arthritic-type disease that is transmitted by spirochete-infected Ixodes ticks (deer ticks). Ticks become infected by rodents, and pass part of their life cycle deer. Three factors have combined to increase the risk to humans of contracting Lyme disease, especially in America North: (1) the elimination of natural deer predators, particularly wolves, (2) reforestation of abandoned farmland has created a habitat more favorable for deer and (3) the creation of suburban properties where deer find ideal habitat for navigation. The net result is an increase deer populations, which increases the chances of human beings came into more contact with ticks.
In 1995, in the southern United States, infection Hantavirus has been confirmed in ninety-four people in twenty countries, with 48 percent mortality. Variants of the strain that causes hantavirus pulmonary syndrome Hantavirus has also been found in other parts of the country and in Asia and Europe. The virus is apparently asymptomatic rodents and is transmitted in their saliva and feces. In humans it has a flu-like presentation, which is followed by acute respiratory distress syndrome. The primary reservoir in the Four Corners area of southwestern United States is the deer mouse. Weather disturbances, which in recent years are thought to be exacerbated by human activity (eg, global warming), appear to establish the conditions that trigger outbreaks. In the early 1990s, ENSO events initially caused drought conditions to develop in the southern United States. This led a decrease in plant and animal populations, including natural predators of deer mice. Heavy rains followed by drought in 1993, resulting in a bumper crop of pinyon nuts, a supply of food for the deer mouse. Subsequently, the population of deer mice increased significantly, this Contact bringing about the men and increases with the onset of the outbreak of hantavirus.
Resistance to antibiotics and agricultural practices Antibiotic resistance is a growing threat to public health. Antibiotic resistant strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae, a common bacterial pathogen humans and the leading cause of many infections, including chronic bronchitis, pneumonia, and meningitis, have increased in prevalence since the mid- 1970. In some parts of the world, up 70 percent of bacterial isolates from patients proved resistant to penicillin and other b-lactam antibiotics. The use of large quantities of antibiotics in agriculture and aquaculture seem to have been a key factor in the development of antibiotic resistance of pathogens to farm animals that subsequently may also infect humans. One of the most serious risks to human health from such practices is vancomycin-resistant enterococci. The use of avoparcin, a growth promoter, appears to have compromised the utility of vancomycin, the last antibiotic effective against bacteria resistant to multiple drugs. In areas where avoparcin had been used, such as farms in Denmark and Germany, bacteria resistant to vancomycin have been detected in meat sold in supermarkets. Avoparcin has since been banned by the European Union. Another example is the use of ofloxacin to protect chickens against infection and thus increase their growth. This drug is closely related to ciprofloxacin, one of the most commonly used antibiotics in 2000. There have been cases of resistance to ciprofloxacin directly related to its veterinary use. In the UK resistance to ciprofloxacin developed in strains of Campylobacter, a common cause of diarrhea. stem multi-drug resistant Salmonella have been attributed to egg production in Europe.
Food security and water. Agricultural practices are also responsible for a growing number of threats to public health. Some of them are related to inadequate waste management, which resulted parasites and bacteria from entering the water supply. Others are of entirely different and involve the apparent transfer across species of pathogens that affect animals and humans. The most recent and spectacular example is the mad cow disease, known as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans, a neurodegenerative condition which, in humans, the fatal outcome. The first case of encephalopathy spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), the animal form of the disease was identified in southern England in November 1981. In the fall of 2000, an epidemic also took place in France, and isolated cases have occurred in Germany, Switzerland and Spain. More than a hundred deaths in Europe were attributed to what mad cow came to be commonly known disease.
Mismanagement of manure was the likely source of the outbreak of E. coli 0157: H7 in Walkerton, Ontario, Canada. Other health risks associated with dysfunction of agroecosystems include periodic outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis, a parasitic disease that spreads by surface runoff contaminated by feces of infected cattle. This parasite causes fever and diarrhea in immunocompetent individuals and severe diarrhea and even death in immunocompromised individuals.
Restoration the ecosystem
Pathology ecosystems in some cases can be reversed simply by removing the source of stress. In this case, for example, where ecosystem degradation is the result of point-source additions of nutrients or toxic chemicals, the elimination of these constraints can lead to considerable recovery of ecosystem health. A classic case is Lake Washington (near Seattle, Washington). This lake has become highly anoxic (low oxygen) due to a sewage outfall into the lake. Redirecting the sewage outfall near Lake Reverse many signs of the disease.
In cases where it is not possible to eliminate the source of stress, more innovative engineering solutions have been tested. For example, in the Kyrönjoki and rivers in western Finland Lestijoki, spring and fall runoff leads to pulse strong acidity. spring runoff of snowmelt, which releases the acid in the soil tilled or dug, was particularly damaging to fish during the critical period of the year to spawn. Fish reproduction is severely curtailed, if not eliminated all together in very acidic water. In addition, there have been massive fish kills resulting from highly acidic water. A possible solution is to replace the original which drains runoff from the land to the rivers with new limed drains that can neutralize the acidity. This solution has been implemented on an experimental basis and appears to significantly reduce acid runoff.
More radical treatments for damaged ecosystems involve "the Surgery of the ecosystem. "In some cases, invasive exotic vegetation (such as mangroves in Hawaii) were removed regions, and native vegetation has been replanted. In regions of North America where wetlands have been severely damaged due to agriculture, urbanization and industrial activity, efforts have been made to establish new wetlands.
More often, however, reversing ecosystem pathology is not possible. Efforts to restore native grasslands in the range Jornada Experimental in the southern United States provides an example. Overgrazing by cattle has severely degraded the landscape and led to the replacement of grasses Indigenous largely inedible shrubs, dominated by mesquite. Erosion by wind and occasional heavy rains have left areas between shrubs largely bare, then the underlying sands were developed in the fashion of the dunes, as on much of the area. Mesquite dunes resulting were highly resistant to efforts to restore native grasslands, although almost all interventions have been tried, including highly toxic defoliants (Agent Orange), fire and bulldozer.
Even where it was possible to restore some ecological functions of ecosystems degraded, and thus improve the health of ecosystems, restoration rarely results in restoring the original biotic community. The best that can be achieved in most cases is the restoration of key ecological functions that provide the ecosystem services necessary, such as regulation of water, primary and secondary productivity, nutrient cycling, and pollination. In all these efforts, key indicators of ecosystem health (vigor, productivity and resilience) are essential to monitor progress. Standard ecological indicators can be used for this purpose (for example, measures of productivity, species composition, nutrient flows, soil fertility) and Indicators of health and socio-economic and human.
Experience with efforts to restore damaged ecosystems strongly suggests that prevention Ecosystem health is much more effective than restoration. For marine ecosystems, setting aside protected areas that provide a sanctuary for fish and wildlife is very promising. Many countries are adopting policies to establish such zones with the prospect that these healthy regions can serve as a reservoir for biota that have become depleted in the unprotected areas. However, this remedy is not without limits. Restoring ecosystem health is not simply a question of re lost or damaged biota. There is also a question of restoring the complex interactions between life forms of the ecosystem. Having a ready source of healthy biota that could recolonize damaged ecosystems is important, but this is only part of the solution.
PREVENTION Disturbances ECOSYSTEM
Given the difficulty in reversing the degradation of ecosystems and the many risks associated human health arising from the loss of ecosystem health, the most effective method is simply to prevent the disruption of ecosystems. However, as many approaches to common sense, this is easier said than done. In developed and developing there is a strong propensity to continue economic growth, even at the cost of serious damage to the environment. Apart from selfish motives, the argument advanced is that economic growth has many obvious benefits to health, such as providing more efficient ways to distribute food, provide the more food, and the provision of better health and funding research to improve the standard of living. These are indeed benefits economic development, and led to substantial increases in world health.
However, at the dawn of Twenty-first century, the past is not necessarily the best guide for the future. The human population is at its highest of all time, and pressures associated human activities have led to increased degradation of ecosystems on Earth. Ultimately healthy ecosystems are essential to the life of all living organisms, including humans, current global and regional trends are ominous. In these circumstances, a compromise between immediate material gains and long-term sustainability of human activities on the planet may be the only option. If so, the solution the maintenance of human health and ecosystem health becomes a developing a new policy that puts the continued support of living systems as a prerequisite for improving the human condition.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Bright, C. (1998). Life Out of Bounds: Bio-invasion in a world without borders. New York: WW Norton.
Colwell, RR (1996). "Global warming and infectious diseases: the cholera paradigm." Science 274:2025-2031.
Colwell, RR, and Patz, JA (1998). Climate, infectious disease and health: an interdisciplinary perspective. Washington, DC: American Academy of Microbiology.
Epstein PR (1995). "Emerging diseases and ecosystem instability: new threats to public health." American Journal of Public Health 85 (2) :168-172.
Huq, A., and Colwell, RR (1996). "Vibrios in Marine Vibrio cholerae and monitoring the estuarine environment:." Ecosystem Health 2:198-214.
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Rapport, DJ, Christensen, N., Karr, JR, and Patil, GP (1998). "The centrality of ecosystem health in achieving sustainability in the twenty-first century: concepts and approaches to environmental management. "Survival of the man in the twenty-first century, ed. DM Hayne. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
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About the Author
Senior Vet.Officer,Central Veterinary Laboratory Kathmandu Nepal M.V.St. Preventive Veterinary Mrdicine
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